While his physical prowess is difficult to call into question, his ability to hold to the knightly code of moderation seems to be less formidable. There are differing interpretations but as whole, there is a general consensus that Lancelot’s continual encounters with horses are symbolic. Horses in the middle ages were generally considered to represent lust and unbridled passion; and while it is important to remember that knight’s did use horses as modes of transportation Chrétien continually draws attention to Lancelot’s equines, or rather his lack of a horse and his mistreatment of the animal. Lancelot’s treatment of the animal gives way to two different interpretations. In Susan Clark’s work on excess in the Charrette she posits that Lancelot’s continual abuse of the animals signifies that his lust for Guinevere has run wild. Consumed by this lust and adoration Lancelot finds himself attacked by a knight guarding a bridge (and subsequently unhorsed). This encounter embodies a large issue Lancelot will continue to struggle with. It is important that a knight practicing courtly love contemplate his lover but it should not be to the point of ineptitude (Kelly, 52). This preoccupation with his lady love is all in an effort to epitomize Lancelot, and redeem him of his hesitation. While admirable, Lancelot’s distraction is in excess and does little to find a balance between courtly love and chivalry. Alternately, Edward Condren focuses not on Lancelot’s treatment of his horses but his inability to keep one. In essence, he states that Lancelot’s lack of a consistent horse shows us the knight as ineffectual and that in combination with his encounter with the knight on the bridge and his utilization of the cart there is “a strong suggestion that commitment to love has caused the emasculation,” (Condren, 445). In either case, Lancelot’s quest is still one to restore his renown as both a knight and lover. The paradox and subsequent unbalance within Lancelot is even noticed by our knight as he is engaged in conflict, “Had he met a hundred such in a valley yesterday, he felt certain they would have had no defense against him, so he was exceedingly distressed and angry to be so weak today...” (de Troyes, 133)
Works Cited
Clark, Susan L., and Julien M. Wasserman. "Putting the Cart Before the Horse: Excess, Restraint, and Choices in Chrétien's Chevalier De La Charrette." Essays in Literature 11.1(1984): 127-35. Humanities International Complete. Web. 17 Feb. 2012.
Condren, Edward I. "The Paradox of Chrétien's Lancelot." MLN 85.4 (1970): 434-53. JSTOR Web. 9 Feb. 2012.
De Troyes, Chretien. “Chretian de Troyes: Lancelot or the Knight of the Cart.” The Romance of Arthur: An Anthology of Medieval Texts in Translation. Trans. James J. Wilhelm. New York: Garland, 1994. 120-200. Print.
Kelly, Douglas. Sens and Conjointure in the Chevalier De La Charrette,. The Hague: Mouton, 1966. Print.
The rest of the paper is below for further reading, should you be interested. (Note: Blogger will not allow me to properly format it, so please do not reference it as a proper work-cited page).
Balancing Courtly Love and the Chivalric Code in Chrétien de Troyes’ Le Chevalier de la CharretteThere is little known about the author of Le Chevalier de la Charrette, Chrétien de Troyes. What knowledge scholars have of Chrétien are taken from allusions within his own work and meticulous study of their content. Written sometime between 1180 and 1190 as a poem in what would now be considered Old French, the Charrette (also referred to as Lancelot) was the first presentation of Lancelot and Guinevere as lovers. Chrétien also considers this love an already established fact (Walters, xvii). Out of all the other work Chrétien composed this piece is unique because of its author’s unwillingness to finish the work. The last 1000 lines or so of the poem were finished, with Chrétien’s blessing, by Godefrey of Lagny. This has sparked some debate in the scholarship relating to the work (Knepper, 65). Chrétien stops working on the piece with Lancelot imprisoned in a tower, leaving his intentions for our hero ambiguous at best. By this point in time Gawain has returned to Arthur’s court and has the capabilities and opportunity to finish the remaining conflict in the story. Regardless of original authorial intent Godefrey has Lancelot return and bring the story to completion.The supposition for why Chrétien abandons the work to Godefrey has been varied and is never made clear but his intentions for the work, as a whole, are stated within the first few lines. He writes directly for the Countess Marie of Champagne, claiming that “the subject matter and meaning are furnished and given to him by the countess, and he strives carefully to add nothing but his effort and careful attention.” (de Troyes, 123)1. The focal point of this work is the romance of Lancelot and Guinevere; more specifically, it is the elevation of Lancelot to the epitome of a courtly lover and knight. An exciting tale on the surface, the Charrette offers insight into a deeper conflict, that of ones duty to courtly love and the chivalric code. While generally ambiguous in their meaning, both modes of conduct are intrinsic to the plot. Chivalry includes courtliness and fearlessness and moderation and religious devotion as well as fraternity to other knights of the order. Courtly love is a little more complicated; submission to a lady’s will, faithfulness, patience, secrecy in regards to a lady’s wishes, are a few of the important (and highlighted) characteristics in the poem (Kelly 42-44).Although the intent is clear, Lancelot is to be the epitome of a courtly lover and knight, along his journey he finds the chivalry code can directly contradict the conduct required of him. This contradiction causes him to give pause early in the tale. Having run his horse to death Lancelot’s remaining means of transportation is a cart driven by a dwarf. Benign by our standards, in this time a “cart was for all criminals alike, for all traitors and murderers, for all those who had lost trials by combat, and for all those who had stolen another’s possessions by larceny or snatched them by force on the highways,”; the man in question was considered to have “lost all his feudal rights and was never again heard at court, nor invited or honored there,” (de Troyes, 127). As a knight it is blasphemous for Lancelot to even consider riding in this cart, and as participant in courtly love his two step hesitation is equally outrageous. Throughout the rest of the tale Lancelot is constantly challenged to prove his love and devotion to Guinevere and his commitment to the chivalric code. These trials are perceived as a punishment, and this tale functions almost at a cautionary level to reveal the dangers of breaking the code. Additionally, the tale seeks to find a balance between the two. While the trials are harsh real success is never achieved until Lancelot is able to balance to two conflicting ideals he is to embody. It is only because Lancelot is so exemplary that he is able to overcome his ordeals and gain the title of knight par excellence and renown as a lover, despite his deviations from what is proper.The beginning of the tale opens in Arthur’s court, a knight from a neighboring kingdom, Meleagant, has captured some of Arthur’s citizens and challenges the king; he orders him to choose a knight to bring the queen to the forest and defend her. In return the prisoners will be granted their freedom, as will Guinevere. Through trickery, Kay is granted this privilege and fails, it then falls to the great Gawain to retrieve the queen. Along his journey we come across Lancelot, unnamed and unhorsed. Being kind, Gawain gives Lancelot another horse, this one is run to death as well and he scene with the cart follows.It is worth noting that Lancelot is a knight far above the rest in spite of his hesitation. While he is continually mocked by citizens for having ridden in the cart, there is immediate reinforcement in his prowess as a knight and lover. Immediately following his ride in the cart, Gawain (who rode his horse along side the cart) and Lancelot spend the night in a manor house; they are warned that they are forbidden to lie in the third bed in their room, Lancelot specifically because of the cart. It is explained that the bed has been enchanted and will reject anyone not worthy. Unconcerned, Lancelot chooses that bed as his own and is attacked that night by an unknown force. Lancelot does little more than remove the lance that had been thrown at him and returns to sleep. In addition, Lancelot is successful in all of his duels.While his physical prowess is difficult to call into question, his ability to hold to the knightly code of moderation seems to be less formidable. There are differing interpretations but as whole, there is a general consensus that Lancelot’s continual encounters with horses are symbolic. Horses in the middle ages were generally considered to represent lust ad unbridled passion; and while it is important to remember that knight’s did use horse as modes of transportation Chrétien continually draws attention to Lancelot’s equines, or rather his lack of a horse and his mistreatment of the animal. Lancelot’s treatment of the animal gives way to two different interpretations. In Susan Clark’s work on excess in the Charrette she posits that Lancelot’s continual abuse of the animals signifies that his lust for Guinevere has run wild. Consumed by this lust and adoration Lancelot finds himself attacked by a knight guarding a bridge (and subsequently unhorsed). This encounter embodies a large issue Lancelot will continue to struggle with. It is important that a knight practicing courtly love contemplate his lover but it should not be to the point of ineptitude (Kelly, 52). This preoccupation with his lady love is all in an effort to epitomize Lancelot, and redeem him of his hesitation. While admirable, Lancelot’s distraction is in excess and does little to find a balance between courtly love and chivalry. Alternately, Edward Condren focuses not on Lancelot’s treatment of his horses but his inability to keep one. In essence, he states that Lancelot’s lack of a consistent horse shows us the knight as ineffectual and that in combination with his encounter with the knight on the bridge and his utilization of the cart there is “a strong suggestion that commitment to love has caused the emasculation,” (Condren, 445). In either case, Lancelot’s quest is still one to restore his renown as both a knight and lover. The paradox and subsequent unbalance within Lancelot is even noticed by our knight as he is engaged in conflict, “Had he met a hundred such in a valley yesterday, he felt certain they would have had no defense against him, so he was exceedingly distressed and angry to be so weak today...” (de Troyes, 133)Another such encounter that forces Lancelot into a conflict between chivalry and courtly conduct is a battle upon the hill of a home that Lancelot has decided to stay for the night. A knight had come to the manor-house and challenges Lancelot, claiming that he will be unable to cross the Sword Bridge (the bridge that will lead him to Guinevere) because of his use of the cart. The knights do battle and, realizing he is outmatched, the challenger begs mercy from Lancelot. In accordance with the knightly code, mercy must be granted to those who ask for it. This is when the conflict between the two codes presents itself. A woman rides up as Lancelot is granting his foe mercy claiming that the man is a traitor and she wants his head. The courtly code would have him grant her desire but chivalry dictates that a knight should grant mercy to those asking for it. In an effort to appease both Lancelot does battle with the knight a second time, winning once more and gives the head to the woman who desired it.Lancelot eventually makes it to the castle where Guinevere is being held but before he can meet her he intends to do battle with her captor Meleagant. During the battle Guinevere watches from a tower, unknown to Lancelot. As he begins to lose the upper hand, a maid of Guinevere questions her queen, wishing to know the mans name so she may call out to him, believing that if he knew he queen was watching he would overcome this obstacle. After being told his name, the maid call out but just as before Lancelot is distracted by Guinevere until the maid shouts a second time bring his faults into startling clarity, “‘Once you were the incarnation of all goodness and prowess, and I don’t believe that God ever made a knight who could compare with you in valor or worthiness! Yet now we see you so distracted that you’re striking blows behind you and fighting with your back turned.’” (de Troyes, 163). Coming to his sense Lancelot is quick to maneuver Meleagant in such a manner so that he may keep an eye on the tower while he continues to fight. As the battle continues on King Bademagu, father of Meleagant as well as character foil to his son, beseeches Guinevere to have Lancelot spare his son. During her stay Bademagu had kept Guinevere safe from harm and because of this she grants his request.This is our first interaction with Guinevere as anything more than a side-character or an abstract ideal Lancelot is yearning for and in this scene she is powerful. Not only does she halt Lancelot’s duel with Meleagant she is also the first to use Lancelot’s name. Since the beginning of the story Lancelot has been referred to only as ‘knight’. This scene gives her an interesting dynamic as a powerful woman in medieval times. In classic romance narratives, such as this, a lady is “reputed to have ultimate control over her suitors well-being, his life and even his death, actually derives little power, authority, or material gain from this glorified position,” (Burns, 24). And in this tale Guinevere seems to have been granted all of that. It is also worth noting that another school of thought, stated in Wendy Knepper’s article Theme and Thesis in Le Chevalier de la Charrette, is that if Guinevere is to be considered an image of feminine power she is synonyms with the cart. “She represents the pursuit of desire over duty: the dangers which threaten medieval society when honour takes the form of self-gratification,” (Knepper, 63). These interpretations both seem to have some weight on the story, although the latter seems a stronger view within the text.Upon their first meeting Guinevere shuns Lancelot for his hesitation to board the cart. Bademagu, Lancelot and later Kay are confused by this. The mentality of the time was that male suitors who implore ladies to reciprocate their love in fictive dialogues ask repeatedly for the hope and encouragement that will lead eventually to their “deserved recompense” (Walsh 1982, 51), their “sweet reward” (77). “Ladies who refuse the love suit are held accountable for their lovers inevitable demise....The lady, bound by the code of courteous speech, must listen politely to entreaties that she might consider crazed words” (63), for she remains dependent on the poet/suitor’s public appraisal of her compliance in love. (Burns, 34-35)All of the men are confused by her reaction but they never do seem to hold her responsible when Lancelot, having left bereft and to retrieve Gawain (the two having separated to take differing paths after their stay at the manor with the cursed bed), is rumored to have been killed. Truly, she seems to blame herself, so much so that she contemplates her own suicide. She spares herself with the comfort of her faith but is never blamed by others for Lancelot’s assumed demise.Guinevere’s own attempted suicide is juxtaposed against Lancelot’s own attempt. Rumors of her death reach Lancelot after he has been captured and unlike the queen, who has no devotion to prove, Lancelot actually goes through with his attempts to kill himself. He attempts the hang himself from the saddle upon his horse and nearly succeeds; proving his devotion the Guinevere above even his faith. Upon his return to the castle Guinevere has been so moved that she claims to forgive his hesitation.His relationship seemingly at rights, Lancelot heads back out to retrieve Gawain with a party of knights. He is fooled along the way, and convinced to ride in another direction, into his captures arms. The capture of Lancelot on this occasion is much more threatening, although it is not revealed until later in the tale. It is at this point in time that the narrative moves from focusing on Lancelot to a more general view of Arthur’s court. Once Gawain is rescued by the remaining party, they find that word has been sent to the castle that Lancelot has returned to Arthur’s court and is awaiting everyone there. The queen and her vassals return home only to find that Lancelot is still missing. Search parties are sent out but as a whole, the court is more overjoyed at the return of their people and queen.Time passes, it is unclear how much, and there a tournament has been planned by one of Arthur’s vassals. The narrative finally returns to Lancelot and upon hearing that the queen is to be present “his eyes filled with tears and all joy left his heart,” (de Troyes, 181). We find that Lancelot has been the captive of one of Meleagant’s vassals but despite this the lady of the house takes Lancelot at his word, allowing him to go compete with the promise of his return upon the completion of the Tourney. In keeping with his word, Lancelot participates wearing borrowed red armor of his captives’ house and thus is unrecognizable by his fellow knights. Once he entered the ring, “he alone proved the match of twenty of the best. He began to do so well that no one could take his eyes from him, where ever he might go,” (183). His awesome strength it presumably gained from the knowledge that Guinevere is watching him. Having taken notice of him, Guinevere has a maid tell him that she wishes him to begin to fight badly. Guinevere has surmised that courtly tradition will require that if this man is truly Lancelot he will obey her request. He does, and participates badly in the remaining competitions of the day. He is still so obliged to Guinevere that “he would rather die than do anything unless he were sure that it would bring him shame, disgrace, and dishonor, and he pretended to be afraid of all those who approached him,” (184). After this show of cowardice, Guinevere is certain the red knight is Lancelot but what is most curious is that on the second day of the competition she orders him to “do his worst” (185) once more. This is peculiar. She has stated that he has been forgiven for his hesitation yet Guinevere still seeks to make him bend to her will. It is possible that she is, on some level, still requiring him to prove himself to her although Theresa Sears has a different opinion as to why this happens. Guinevere is subject to a humiliation by her husband in the beginning of the tale. She is forced to bow to Kay, requested so by her husband in an effort to keep him within the court. Sears believes that this humiliation stays with the queen and is her motivation in her first denial of Lancelot and then again her request for him to participate poorly. Sears states that “his obedience proves that he is Lancelot the Queen’s submissive subject, not Lancelot the world finest knight,” (Sears, 51). She goes on to explain that it is because “Guinevere was forced to humble herself to the socially inferior Kay, so Lancelot must be humiliated by lesser knights,” (52). While this is an explanation for Guinevere’s humiliation of Lancelot it does not explain, if the queen is on a power trip, why she would then order him to do his best later. What could be more humiliating than having the world’s best knight lose the entire tournament? It is an interesting conundrum, perhaps born of both Guinevere’s original humiliation and her scorn and his hesitation. Her request for him to perform at his peak in the final rounds presents us with a compassionate view of the woman. She may still enjoy the power she has but she is not so blind or callous as to let her lover be completely abased amongst his peers.Having completed the tourney, Lancelot returns to his captors as promised. This is an interesting change from his previous behavior. On all other occasions, when Lancelot had caught sight of Guinevere, he had hardly been able to contain himself. In one instance early in the poem he catches sight of her while standing on a balcony and “when he could no longer see her, he wanted to throw himself form the window and shatter his body on the ground below,” (de Troyes, 129). His departure from the queen back to captivity is much more understated, “His departure was so furtive that no one in all that great crowd noticed it. He rode on swiftly purposefully in order to keep his pledge to return directly to that place from where he had come,” (187). This is perhaps the first bit of proof that Lancelot is finally melding the two conflicting codes. He has gone from a constant state of melodrama to one of calm and unobtrusive.Meleagant is unhappy with these events. Having heard of Lancelot’s escape he builds an inescapable tower and when the knight returns he moves his captive from the home of his vassal to the newly constructed prison. It is during this section of Lancelot’s imprisonment that Meleagant travels to Arthur’s court to challenge Lancelot to a duel in one year’s time, and should he not appear he will not only be shamed but someone else must take his place.Over the course of this year, we finally see some good come from Lancelot’s seemingly random encounters beforehand. The woman who he granted the traitors head is actually Meleagant’s sister. She finds Lancelot in the tower and helps free him. Weak from malnourishment, the woman cares for him until he regains his strength. Once that returns he swiftly sets off to defeat Meleagant once and for all.Upon his return to court Guinevere gives the same hesitance that Lancelot did in the beginning of the tale, “She was so near him that she could scarcely restrain her body (and nearly didn’t!) from following her heart to him. And where was her heart? Welcoming Lancelot with kisses. Why then was the body reticent? Was her joy not complete? Was it laced with anger or hatred? No indeed, not in the least; rather, she hesitated because the others present - the king and his entourage, who could see everything - would immediately perceive her love if, before their very eyes, she were to do all that her heart desired. (196) Here we have the story come nearly full circle. And during his battle with Meleagant, Lancelot is unconcerned with Guinevere. It is more a battle of pride and knightly honor than one for her.Given that the last 1000 lines or so of the poem have little to do with the romance between Lancelot and Guinevere, why does the story not end with her rescue and the reaffirmation of their love? The best assumption is that Lancelot has not balanced the paradox between courtly love and chivalry. Over half of the tale has little to do with Lancelot and Guinevere, specifically. They are tools, used to portray the qualities of a man and a woman of the time period. The focus of this work is, of course, a knight and it is his behaviour that is being scrutinized. While the romance between the two is important, it is secondary to the chivalric code and the expectations of a courtly lover. The story continues after her rescue because Lancelot has not yet become the epitome of both the chivalry code and a courtly lover. It is worth noting that Lancelot’s previous encounter with Meleagant had all been in response to some aspect of his love for Guinevere, this final encounter is not that at all. Not only does Lancelot fight well, he fights better than in any of their previous encounters. The story as a whole is more-so about the struggle between courtly love and chivalry. There seems to be a constant push-pull effect between the two that only a melding of the two can rectify. Lancelot’s encounter with the cart the best example of this turmoil. Lancelot hesitates - a knight is never to hesitate when it comes to his lady; Lancelot boards the cart - a stain on his knightly honor. The modes of behavior can be summarized as desire over duty, and a balance must present itself for an individual to rise as the epitome of these. It is not until that happens that the tale can end. While there is a cautionary element to the poem, the reader is not left to wonder how to avoid the contradictions within the two realms. We are presented with conflicting scenarios and they are rectified according to both; or, if we look at the story as a whole, we are given a man who is conflicted and eventually finds resolution. Instead of being left to wonder the reader is given the answer by the story. To rectify the conflicting requirements of courtly love and the chivalric code all one needs to do is find balance.
Burns, E. Jane. "Courtly Love: Who Needs It? Recent Feminist Work in the Medieval French Tradition." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 27.1 (2001): 23-57. JSTOR.Web. 9 Feb. 2012.Note1. The text that I am using has been translated from its original French poetic form into English prose. The scholarship cited uses either the original French (or varying translations of it) still within poetic form. As such, their citations use line numbers, mine are pages.Works Cited
Clark, Susan L., and Julien M. Wasserman. "Putting the Cart Before the Horse: Excess, Restraint, and Choices in Chrétien's Chevalier De La Charrette." Essays in Literature 11.1 (1984): 127-35. Humanities International Complete. Web. 17 Feb. 2012.
Condren, Edward I. "The Paradox of Chrétien's Lancelot." MLN 85.4 (1970): 434-53. JSTOR Web. 9 Feb. 2012.
De Troyes, Chretien. “Chretian de Troyes: Lancelot or the Knight of the Cart.” The Romance of Arthur: An Anthology of Medieval Texts in Translation. Trans. James J. Wilhelm. New York: Garland, 1994. 120-200. Print.
Kelly, Douglas. Sens and Conjointure in the Chevalier De La Charrette,. The Hague: Mouton, 1966. Print.
Knepper, Wendy. "Theme and Thesis in "Le Chevalier De La Charrette"" Arthuriana 6.2 (1996): 54-68. JSTOR. Web. 16 Feb. 2012.
Lacy, Norris J., and Geoffrey Ashe. “Chivalry, Courtly Love.” The Arthurian Handbook. New York, New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1997. 70 - 71. Print.
